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The upland lakes (ULs) in Carajás, southeastern ia, have been extensively studied with respect to their high-resolution structural geology, geomorphology, stratigraphy, multielement and isotope geochemistry, palynology and limnology. These studies have generated large multiproxy datasets, which were integrated in this review to explain the formation and evolution of the ULs. These ULs evolved during the Pliocene–Pleistocene periods through several episodes of a subsidence of the lateritic crust (canga) promoted by fault reactivation. The resulting ULs were filled under wet/dry and warm/cool paleoclimatic conditions during the Pleistocene period. The multielement geochemical signature indicates that the detrital sediments of these ULs were predominantly derived from weathered canga and ferruginous soils, while the sedimentary organic matter came from autochthonous (siliceous sponge spicules, algae, macrophytes) and allochthonous (C3/C4 canga and forest plants and freshwater dissolved organic carbon) sources. Modern pollen rain suggests that even small ULs can record both the influence of canga vegetation and forest signals; thus, they can serve as reliable sites to provide a record of vegetation history. The integrated data from the sedimentary cores indicate that the active ULs have never dried up during the last 50 ka cal BP. However, subaerial exposure occurred in filled ULs, such as the Tarzan mountain range during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Bocaína and S11 mountain ranges in the mid-Holocene period, due to the drier conditions. Considering the organic proxies, the expansion of C4 plants has been observed in the S11 and Tarzan ULs during dry events. Extensive precipitation of siderite in UL deposits during the LGM indicated drier paleoenvironmental conditions, interrupting the predominantly wet conditions. However, there is no evidence of widespread forest replacement by savanna in the Carajás plateau of southeastern ia during the late Pleistocene and Holocene.
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